Other Traditions

In Thailand and Java, the nāga is a wealthy underworld deity. For Malay sailors, nagas are a type of dragon with many heads. In Laos they are beaked water serpents.[citation needed] In Tibet, they are said to be found in waterways and underground locations, and are susceptible to the suffering caused by humans’ carelessness towards the natural environment, often reacting to such actions.

Sri Lanka

The Naga people were believed to be an ancient tribe and origins of Sri Lanka. According to V. Kanakasabhai, the Oliyar, Parathavar, Maravar, and Eyinar, who were widespread across South India and North-East Sri Lanka, are all Naga tribes. There are references to them in several ancient texts such as Mahavamsa, Manimekalai, and also in other Sanskrit and Pali literature. They are generally represented as a class of superhumans taking the form of serpents who inhabit a subterranean world. Texts such as Manimekalai represent them as persons in human form.

Cambodia

Stories of nāgas (Khmer: នាគ, néak) have been part of Khmer society for thousands of years, dating back to the Funan era (នគរភ្នំ). According to reports from two Chinese envoys, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, the state of Funan was established in the 1st century CE when an Indian prince named Kaundinya I (កៅណ្ឌិន្យទី១) married a nāga princess named Soma (សោមាកូនព្រះចន្ទ saôma kon preah chan; “Soma, daughter of the moon god”; Chinese: Liuye; "Willow Leaf"). The couple is symbolized in the story of Preah Thong and Neang Neak. As the legend goes, Kaundinya received instruction in a dream to take a magic bow from a temple and defeat Soma, the nāga princess and daughter of the nāga king. During the ensuing battle, they fell in love and later married, establishing the royal lineage of the Funan dynasty. Kaundinya subsequently constructed the capital city of Vyadhapura, and the kingdom became to be known as Kambujadeśa or Cambodia (កម្ពុជា, Kampuchea). The love story between Kaundinya and Soma is the foundation for many standard practices in modern-day Khmer culture, including wedding ceremonies and other rituals. The Khmer people regard themselves as descendants of the nagas and many still believe the nāga exist today, destined to one day return and restore prosperity to their people.

Although wars, nature, and the passage of time destroyed many temples from the Funan era, nāgas can still be seen in ancient temples dating to the Chenla and Angkor eras. For instance, the temple now called "The Coiled Nāgas Temple" (ប្រាសាទនាគព័ន្ធ, Prasat Neak Poan) was previously named, "Emperor's Wealth Temple" (ប្រាសាទរាជ្យស្រី Prasat Reach Srey).

In Khmer culture, nāgas symbolize rain, and represent a bridge between the mortal realm (ឋានមនុស្ស) and the realm of devas (Heaven; ឋានទេវតា/ឋានសួគ៌). They have the ability to transform into half or fully human and act as protectors against invisible forces, deities, or malicious intentions. Furthermore, Cambodian nāgas possess numerological symbolism based on the number of their heads. Odd-headed nāgas embody masculinity, infinity, timelessness, and immortality, since all odd numbers derives from the number one (១). Even-headed nāgas denote femininity, physicality, mortality, temporality, and the Earth. Odd headed nāgas are believed to represent immortality and are carved and used throughout Cambodia.

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